Critical Dialogues About Psychedelics Between the Global North and South
In recent years, psychedelics have captured the imagination of the general public, scientists, and policymakers alike. Their potential therapeutic applications, the deeply rooted traditions, and the flourishing body of scientific research present a fascinating mosaic of perspectives. Yet, like any intricate narrative, the experience of psychedelics is shaped by the context and viewpoint of each observer, resulting in a kaleidoscope of meanings and priorities. From Indigenous spiritual practices to contemporary therapeutic frameworks, these substances’ diverse applications reveal rich opportunities and significant challenges.
The terminology used to describe the current wave of interest in psychedelics—for example, “psychedelic renaissance” or “psychedelic resurgence”—is crucial in shaping how we perceive this phenomenon. Each term carries distinct connotations that influence public understanding and discourse. The term “psychedelic renaissance” has faced criticism within progressive circles for its imperial legacy and connotations. Some authors favor the term “resurgence” to emphasize a historical continuity with traditional practices rather than framing it as a novel movement. However, one could argue that the term “resurgence” is also mainly based on a narrative of the Global North, as this does not necessarily reflect the historical and cultural contexts of the Global South, where the use of these substances has its trajectory, in many ways, independent of external increase in interest.
The debate over these terms is not merely academic; it also has significant political implications. How psychedelics are categorized can affect funding, regulatory approaches, and the broader societal narrative regarding mental health and wellness. Critics of either term highlight that these distinctions influence how we engage with issues of access, equity, and the potential for harm or benefit within the context of psychedelic use. These or other framings have the power to shape the direction of research, policy, and public perception; choosing terminology is a vital consideration in discussions surrounding psychedelics. Moreover, critics voice concern that the burgeoning commercialization of psychedelics—within religious, therapeutic, and retreat settings—risks commodifying traditional Indigenous knowledge and practices.
This tension raises ethical questions about the potential reproduction of colonial dynamics where the sacred becomes marketable. Within the scientific community, opinions diverge; while some herald psychedelics as groundbreaking treatments for conditions like PTSD and depression, others caution against overzealous claims. The regulatory landscape adds further complexity, as countries grapple with decriminalization, safety protocols, and the potential for misuse. These discussions echo broader societal tensions around mental health, spirituality, and the ethics of consciousness alteration, transforming the psychedelic landscape into a multifaceted terrain that requires careful navigation.
In the United States, the landscape of psychedelics, once fueled by high hopes for groundbreaking therapeutic applications, now faces a pivotal moment of reckoning. The recent rejection of MDMA as a therapeutic option for PTSD by the FDA has not only dashed expectations but also exposed the vulnerabilities of a movement that was heavily reliant on regulatory approval and investor enthusiasm. This disenchantment has led to a retreat from funding and innovation, causing many startups to reassess their strategies or even shut their doors. As the field contracts, there’s a growing awareness that the movement must do some serious soul-searching and revisit its foundational principles to regain momentum and trust.
By fostering open dialogues, and embracing transparency, the psychedelic movement can begin to redefine itself, creating a resilient framework that values ethical practice, education, harm reduction, and reciprocity over profit and honors the diverse voices that have long been part of this narrative and that are currently neglected or silenced. In doing so, the psychedelic movement can advance a fresh set of conversations based on a collective vision for a still uncertain future, urgently incorporating strong perspectives from the Global South. In this essay, we examine the role of countries like Mexico, Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina here, though we are notably excluding references to countries like Peru, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador and others that we hope can be further explored in future writings.
Mexico
Mexico is a crucial hub for psychedelic plants and fungi, deeply rooted in Indigenous traditions, particularly among the Mazatec and Wixárika communities, who have long used psilocybin mushrooms and peyote for spiritual and healing practices. Mexico is also home to the largest diversity of psychedelic flora and fauna in the world with a variety of psychoactive plants and fungi, including psilocybin mushrooms, peyote, salvia divinorum, and others. “There are approximately 54 distinct Indigenous groups each with their own cultural practices and beliefs regarding the use of 4500 species of medicinal plants. Some of the main groups that continue to use these mushrooms today besides the Mazatec, include the Nahua, Mixtec, and Zapotec, among others. This biodiversity is intertwined with the country’s cultural and spiritual traditions and creates a special landscape for both Indigenous practices and scientific research.
The country has also played a foundational role in psychedelic science, notably through Salvador Roquet, who was a pioneer in the attempt to merge Indigenous practices with modern research to offer healing treatments to non-Indigenous patients. Despite his controversial methods, he has been deeply influential in the underground work and also in the establishment of parameters for psychedelic-assisted therapy, a topic that merits further investigation. Currently, scientific research in Mexico on psychedelics faces hurdles, as exemplified by Anja Loizaga’s years-long struggle to obtain a permit for ayahuasca studies. Despite these obstacles, there are preliminary studies on psilocybin in mice and some work on ketamine.
The rise in ayahuasca ceremonies among international travelers has contributed to bringing psychedelics to the forefront of public intervention. Twenty-three legal cases in Mexico, mostly related to drug possession, were reported in 2023–2024 by the non-profit ICEERS (International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Service) through their newsletter. Additionally, tourism related to peyote and mushrooms is expanding in traditional Indigenous communities alongside a significant increase in the number of retreats focusing mainly on clientele from the Global North, including ayahuasca, psilocybin mushrooms, and 5-MeO-DMT.
There is also a robust underground of iboga and ibogaine clinics in the country. Often retreats, clinics, and ceremonial circles misrepresent their status as legal and benefit from a regulatory gray zone and lack of enforcement. This scenario creates possibilities for practices with psychedelics that are not allowed in the U.S. This has advantages, but comes with risks and poses the question of what the benefits of this expansion for local communities are.
While the Supreme Court (Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación, 2019) approved adult cannabis use in 2021, the decriminalization of psilocybin (Senado de la República, 2023) is still gaining traction, influenced by international movements. Notwithstanding the many reform efforts, many of them have failed to include proper consultation with Indigenous peoples, causing a backlash within these communities. As Mexico navigates the intersection of ancient traditions and commercialization, it confronts ongoing challenges regarding Indigenous rights and environmental stewardship.
Brazil
The continent is witnessing a significant surge in psychedelic research and science. Brazil boasts a vibrant and evolving culture centered on psychedelic plants, blending traditional Indigenous practices with religious uses and an increasing interest in their therapeutic potential. Brazil is ranked third in the world for impactful scientific research in this field, trailing only the United States and the United Kingdom.
At the forefront of this exploration is ayahuasca, which has emerged as a focal point for research into its therapeutic potential. The country’s groundbreaking clinical study, conducted at Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), explored the effects of ayahuasca on depression, incorporating a placebo group, making it a pioneering effort in the global field of psychedelics. These landmark studies provide clinical validation for what Indigenous and spiritual communities have long recognized about ayahuasca’s healing properties. Similarly, investigations into DMT are gaining momentum, with new clinical trials assessing its potential to treat conditions like depression and PTSD.
It’s worth noting that these studies with vaporized DMT are designed to be more easily introduced in the Brazilian Universal Health System (known as Sistema Único de Saúde, SUS), by trying to develop a short action, non-invasive method to use a psychedelic, creating a new contemporary use of a traditional Brazilian plant medicine, the Jurema tree (Mimosa tenuiflora). Despite efforts to regulate ayahuasca for religious purposes, the broader legal status of psychedelics remains stagnant. This is due to the increasing conservatism among the population and the legislature, which has not only hindered the advancement of medical cannabis regulation, but also stifled any discussion of psychedelics.
In the regulatory aspect, Brazil shares some characteristics with Mexico, combining traditional uses, legal gray zones, and lack of enforcement, allowing the emergence of a creative set of possibilities. There is a supportive legal environment for the use of iboga, a psychoactive plant traditionally used in Africa, which is garnering interest for its potential in treating addiction—particularly opioid dependency. While it may not have the same recognition as ayahuasca, iboga is steadily gaining traction within Brazil’s therapeutic and spiritual communities.
A notable figure in this movement is Bruno Rasmussen. He has facilitated thousands of cases integrating ibogaine therapy with psychotherapy, aiding individuals struggling with problematic use of psychoactive substances. His work has contributed to the growing body of evidence supporting iboga’s efficacy and reinforcing Brazil’s position in the global movement toward plant-based addiction recovery. Bruno Gomes is another researcher who has pioneered psychological support to patients using ibogaine. He also published about the contemporary scene around iboga in Brazil and, in another study, he visited and described different ibogaine clinics in the country. His work shows the possibilities, but also the risks, involved as iboga and ibogaine appear as new products marketed in the loosely-regulated field of Brazilian addiction treatments.
Beyond ayahuasca and iboga, Brazil is also home to a rich array of psychoactive plants, including jurema (Mimosa tenuiflora) and toé (Brugmansia). Jurema contains DMT and has been used for centuries among Indigenous and Afro-Brazilian communities in northeastern Brazil, particularly within shamanic and religious practices. The recent expansion of ayahuasca tourism has attracted many foreigners eager to participate in ceremonies, igniting complex discussions about the implications for Indigenous populations and their traditions.
Brazil’s psychedelic culture thus emerges as a dynamic interplay of tradition, science, spirituality, and commerce, with ayahuasca at the heart of this intricate ecosystem. As the country navigates this flourishing landscape, it is crucial to balance the benefits of research and tourism with respect for Indigenous practices and the cultural heritage that underpins the extraordinary world of psychedelics and their traditions.
Uruguay
Uruguay psychiatrist Juan Carlos Rey Tosar’s first experiments with LSD in South America started in the 1950s, and remains fairly unknown; another example of stories that have not yet been fully told. The country is currently witnessing the emergence of a new psychedelic scene fueled both by the expansion of the neighboring practices of the Brazilian Santo Daime tradition and a growing global interest in the therapeutic applications of these substances. Incipient psychedelic groups, academic institutions, and a burgeoning interest in plant medicine are cultivating a community focused on therapeutic and personal use.
As a global pioneer in cannabis legislation, Uruguay made history in 2013 by becoming the first country to fully legalize the cultivation, sale, and consumption of recreational cannabis. The government oversees production to ensure quality control and sells cannabis through licensed pharmacies, allowing citizens to grow their plants or join cannabis clubs. Medical cannabis is also legal, making Uruguay’s model a progressive approach to drug policy that emphasizes reducing black-market activity while ensuring safe access.
Critics claim, however, that progress looks stronger in theory than in reality, with people still being imprisoned for the use of cannabis. In any case, many believe that Uruguay’s progressive drug policies potentially create a fertile ground for open discussions and serve as a potential blueprint for shaping public opinion and policy regarding psychedelics. Others argue that the legal framework surrounding psychedelics remains in flux, with strict regulations largely confining their use to research contexts.
Interdisciplinary research in psychedelics is also gaining momentum in Uruguay, particularly through initiatives like the Arche Foundation.This research group of the University of the Republic (UDELAR) explores several lines of research on the therapeutic potential of psychedelic substances such as ayahuasca, psilocybin and ibogaine, among others. By integrating scientific inquiry with a holistic view of mental health, Arche draws on insights from psychology, neuroscience, and traditional practices, contributing to the evolving public narrative around psychedelics. This group has created the first psychedelic gathering in the country, and is engaged in initial conversations with the government (Junta Nacional de Drogas, 2023) which sound promising.
Argentina
Meanwhile, Argentina is experiencing a renewed interest in psychedelics, echoing the goldeon era from 1957 to 1967, when the country was a hub for the exploration of psychoactive substances in therapeutic and academic contexts. Influenced by global interest and the counterculture movement, figures like Luiza Alvarez and Alberto Fontana pioneered the integration of psychedelics, particularly LSD, into psychotherapy. Their clinical studies sought to leverage psychedelics to access unconscious thoughts and emotions, revealing their potential benefits for treating psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety. However, this vibrant period ended abruptly in the late 1960s due to heightened regulations stemming from safety concerns and social unrest.
Today, Argentina’s psychedelic landscape is undergoing a revitalization as conversations about the therapeutic potential of these substances gain traction worldwide. Although psychedelics remain largely illegal outside specific research contexts, a growing movement is advocating for their decriminalization and incorporation into mental health treatments. Grassroots organizations are emerging, focusing on education and advocacy, while universities and mental health professionals are reigniting their interest in psychedelic research. Despite the absence of a formal regulatory framework, a rich dialogue is blossoming around the benefits of psychedelics, buoyed by Argentina’s historical engagement with these substances and the global surge in scientific research exploring their efficacy in treating conditions like PTSD and depression.
Lessons from the Global South
This brief testament is evidence that the Global South offers invaluable insights and perspectives on psychedelics that starkly contrast with those in the Global North, highlighting the need for developing unique standards rather than merely imitating Northern practices. In countries like Brazil and Mexico, the social sciences play a pivotal role in shaping psychedelic research and therapy, and there is a strong collection of literature that remains largely unknown to the English-speaking world. There are also potential novelties in the realm of public health policies. For instance, Brazil is witnessing activism aimed at integrating psychedelics into SUS, a marked departure from the privatized healthcare models prevalent in the U.S.
The cultural integration of ayahuasca in Brazil has promoted a more creative, experiential approach to research, with scholars sharing personal experiences that enrich academic discourse. New South-South dialogues are starting to appear, enhancing the exchange of knowledge, such as the intersections between the African Indigenous practices of iboga, the medical culture of iboga, and the Brazilian ayahuasca religions. As global interest in psychedelics expands, there lies a rich opportunity to draw from traditional practices to inform contemporary psychedelic-assisted therapies. Indigenous knowledge systems offer crucial insights into the contextual factors that shape therapeutic engagement, emphasizing the importance of setting, intention, and communal support in healing.
Many wish to integrate Indigenous wisdom and modern therapeutic practices and honor local customs and values, allowing Indigenous communities to contribute to the broader dialogue on mental health. However, caution is warranted in this integration; issues of appropriation and commodification of sacred traditions must be addressed. Proper informed consent and meaningful dialogue with Indigenous communities is essential to ensure that any new developments are rooted in respect and mutual benefit.
As we navigate the evolving psychedelic field, we must ask ourselves: Can we genuinely honor the cultural integrity of Indigenous traditions while pursuing therapeutic advancements, or will we simply perpetuate a cycle of exploitation masked as progress? It’s time to challenge the dominant narrative and elevate the voices of those who have held these practices sacred for generations. The discourse surrounding psychedelics in the global North and South demands thus a critical decolonial perspective that interrogates prevailing paradigms. As we advance, it becomes essential to advocate for reparative actions and reciprocity.
In addition to the notable cultural differences between the Global North and South, the power imbalances and systemic inequalities between them are also stark. In contrast, psychedelics have the potential to go beyond national borders and become a global cause. However, for this potential to be realized, the voices and insights of the Global South must be not only heard but actively integrated into the conversation.
An inclusive approach that honors Indigenous traditions, urban uses and communities, and contemporary therapeutic practices is crucial. This requires dismantling hierarchical structures that privilege Northern biomedical narratives while elevating and validating the rich traditions and wisdom of the Global South. By doing this, we can cultivate a more equitable and grounded discourse around psychedelics—one that not only seeks to address contemporary challenges but also to combat historical injustices. The legacy of pioneering psychedelic scientific initiatives in Uruguay, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, alongside the strong influence of social scientists, underscores the Global South’s capacity to shape a psychedelic field that is not only scientifically robust but also socially responsible.
The financial models emerging from cannabis regulation across the continent raise critical questions. These profit-driven frameworks risk undermining traditional practices that hold deep cultural and spiritual significance. Considering the wide cultural traditions around plant medicines in Latin America, it would be interesting to witness the emergence and strengthening of a certain profile of investors with first-hand experience who are more personally committed to patients than profits.
What is Next?
Looking ahead, we must learn lessons from the increasing interest in the use of psychedelics in countries like the United States. States like Oregon and Colorado are paving the way for regulated access, while Massachusetts considers similar reforms. This growing momentum supports not only therapeutic use of psychedelics, but also their application in religious, spiritual, ceremonial, and group shared use settings. Our joint collective moment also presents a critical opportunity for a course correction, where the Global North confronts its practices regarding psychedelics in light of lessons from the Global South.
The current trajectory—often characterized by panacea claims, commercialization, and hype—risks overshadowing the cultural significance and traditional knowledge that have long surrounded these substances. As an alternative, we must defy the common approach that prioritizes profit-driven models that sideline the voices of Indigenous communities, deepening epistemological injustices; and we must promote ethical considerations concerning the use of psychedelics.
Fostering equitable access and open dialogues between the Global North and South is not just a noble goal; it’s a necessity if we are to avoid the pitfalls of the so-called psychedelic renaissance. The integration of psychedelics into medical settings should not merely replicate existing models; instead, they represent an opportunity to reflect on the very foundations of mainstream healthcare systems. More than ever, we need to critically examine the directions of the psychedelic movement on a global scale. If the North fails to learn from the experiences of the Global South, it risks perpetuating cycles of marginalization and racism and will reinforce economic and power imbalances. Inversely, the Global South can learn from the Global North about the dangers of the psychedelic hype and the ethical questions that emerged recently with psychedelic therapy research, including topics such as sexual abuse, touch, and consent.
Despite the glaring obstacles and differences between North and South, there is a silver lining in the psychedelic landscape that has global implications. The psychedelic field is witnessing a remarkable evolution, characterized by a surge of academic research across mainstream universities that is unprecedented in its scope and depth. This influx of scholarly interest not only paves the way for innovative studies on the therapeutic potential of psychedelics but also attracts new sources of funding from both the public and private sectors. As awareness increases, the societal stigma surrounding these substances diminishes, fostering a climate of openness that encourages thoughtful discussion about their uses in mental health, addiction treatment, and spiritual and social practices.
Moreover, there is a growing interest among professionals eager to build careers in this domain, drawn by the potential for meaningful contributions to science and societal well-being. Governmental engagement is also on the rise in some countries, with policymakers increasingly considering the implications of psychedelic research in public health frameworks.
One cannot forget the wave of Indigenous activism that is gaining momentum, empowering communities to assert their rights and reclaim their cultural heritage in the face of expansion and commodification. This activism not only seeks to protect and safeguard traditional forms of knowledge and biocultures, but also aims to influence policy discussions, ensuring that Indigenous voices are integral to the narrative surrounding psychedelics and combating the consequences of the Drug War on certain populations and contexts.
Collectively, these developments signal a promising trajectory for the psychedelic field, with the potential to transform broader societal paradigms around health, spirituality, and culture. In this evolving global landscape, Chacruna continues to push for a broad dialogue between different agents, a more multidisciplinary approach, and a more organic and dialogical relationship between North and South, advancing a just and equitable psychedelic future for all.
This article was originally published in Spanish at https://chacruna-la.org/dialogos-criticos-norte-sur-global/